PART A ▪ UNIT 1 · Communication Skills – III

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PART A ▪ UNIT 1

Communication Skills – III

Methods · Styles · Writing Skills (Class XI)

Communication is the sharing of information, ideas, thoughts or feelings between two or more people (or within a group) to reach a common understanding. The word comes from the Latin commūnicāre, meaning "to share". As a Class XI student you have already learnt communication basics in Classes IX and X — in this unit we revise the core ideas and add depth: the three methods (verbal, non-verbal, visual), the four communication styles (assertive, aggressive, passive, passive-aggressive), and a full writing-skills module covering sentences, phrases, parts of speech, articles and paragraph construction.

Learning Outcome 1: Demonstrate knowledge of various methods of communication

1.1 Importance of Communication

Your ability to communicate clearly and share thoughts, feelings and ideas helps you in every relationship — at home, at school, and later at work. You may study any language, but you must be able to read, write, speak and listen well to communicate properly. Knowing more than one language helps you reach more people; English specifically helps you connect with a wider global audience.

Communication skills are needed to —

Inform — e.g., telling someone the time of a meeting.
Influence — e.g., negotiating with a shopkeeper to reduce a price.
Express feelings — e.g., showing that you are excited about your success or a new task.

1.2 Elements of Communication

Communication is a two-way process of sharing information — giving and receiving. Speaking and writing are ways of giving information; reading and listening are ways of receiving it.

Sender The person who creates and sends the message.

Message The information being shared — words, signs, pictures or gestures.

Channel The medium — face-to-face, phone, email, letter, sign.

Receiver The person who decodes and understands the message.

Communication is complete only when the receiver gives feedback. Without feedback, the sender does not know whether the message was understood.

1.3 Perspectives in Communication

Perspectives are ideas, views, or fixed ways of thinking that sometimes affect how we send or receive a message. For example, if you have a fixed idea that your teacher is strict, even a friendly comment may sound like scolding. Others may also have fixed ideas about you that colour whatever you say.

Factors Affecting Perspectives (Communication Barriers)

Factor	How it becomes a barrier
Language	Wrong words, unfamiliar language, too much detail. Example: a Hindi speaker and a Mandarin speaker cannot talk directly.
Visual Perception	Judging people by how they look — e.g., "a man in torn clothes must be poor".
Past Experience	Earlier bad experience blocks understanding — "This shopkeeper cheated me last time, let me be careful".
Prejudice	Fixed negative idea — "No one in my class listens to me" — stops a student from speaking up.
Feelings	Lack of interest or distrust affects communication — "I am sad, let me not talk".
Environment	Noise or distraction in surroundings — e.g., speaking while walking on a noisy road.
Personal factors	Fear, low confidence, nervous habits make communication difficult.
Culture	A sign may mean different things in different cultures — a "thumbs up" is praise for some, insulting for others.

1.4 Effective Communication — The 7 Cs

Effective communication follows seven professional principles known as the 7 Cs.

1. ClearBe clear about what you want to say and write.

2. ConciseUse simple words and say only what is needed.

3. ConcreteUse exact words, phrases, facts and figures.

4. CorrectUse correct spellings, language and grammar.

5. CoherentYour words should make sense and relate to the main topic.

6. CompleteYour message should contain all needed information.

7. CourteousBe respectful, friendly and honest.

1.5 Three Methods of Communication

🗣️

Verbal

Communicating using words — spoken or written.

🤝

Non-verbal

Communicating without words — through body language and tone.

👁️

Visual

Communicating through pictures, signs and symbols.

Studies show that less than 10% of everyday communication is done through words. Body movements (face, arms) and voice control (tone, pace, pauses) carry the majority of the message.

📣 Verbal Communication

Verbal communication is the sharing of information using words. It is the most commonly used method and has two main forms — oral (spoken) and written.

Type	Examples
Oral / Spoken Communication that involves talking	Face-to-face conversation, group discussion, public speech, classroom teaching, business meeting, phone call.
Written Communication that involves written or typed words	Letters and notes on paper, SMS text messages, e-mail (to one person or to a group), printed books, newspapers.

✅ Advantages

Easy and quick — you say it and get a quick response.
Best for exchanging ideas in real time.
You can keep adjusting your message based on the other person's reply.

❌ Disadvantages

Meaning can become confusing if the right words are not used.
Spoken words have no permanent record.
Depends heavily on the listener's attention and understanding.

🎤 Public Speaking — The 3 Ps

Speaking in front of a large group makes most people nervous. Use the 3 Ps method — Prepare, Practise, Perform — to become a confident speaker.

1Prepare
Think about your topic, your listeners, and the best way to explain. Write what you plan to say.

2Practise
Practise alone, in front of a mirror, then family / friends. Speak clearly, loudly, at the right speed.

3Perform
Take a few deep breaths if nervous; think of what you practised and speak confidently.

🤲 Non-verbal Communication

Non-verbal communication is the message we send to others without using any words — through expressions, gestures, postures and voice control. It often makes the verbal message stronger (or contradicts it).

Importance of Non-verbal Communication

Right gestures and postures help you appear professional at work.
Good gestures while speaking make your message more effective.
Reading the audience's reactions helps you adjust your communication on the fly.
When verbal messages are blocked by noise or distance, non-verbal signals can still carry meaning (a finger on the lips → silence; nodding → yes).

Types of Non-verbal Communication

Type	What it implies	How to use effectively
😊 Facial Expression	Shows feelings — happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear.	Smile when you meet someone; keep face relaxed; match expression with what you are saying.
🧍 Posture	Body position — shows confidence and attitude.	Keep upper body relaxed, shoulders straight; sit upright; hands by your sides while standing.
👋 Gestures / Body Language	Hand and head movements — waving, pointing, nodding. Biting nails shows nervousness.	Avoid pointing at people; bend head slightly while listening to show attention.
🤝 Touch	Handshake, pat on the back — shows confidence, encouragement.	Shake hands firmly; avoid other touch gestures during formal communication.
↔️ Space	The physical distance between two people.	Maintain proper space — closer with family, more distance in formal settings.
👀 Eye Contact	Shows interest, confidence or anger. Looking away makes the other person feel ignored.	Look at the speaker; keep a relaxed, pleasant look; break eye contact every few seconds.
🎚️ Paralanguage	The way we speak — tone, speed, volume — changes the meaning of words.	Use a proper tone and volume; maintain a moderate speed of talking.

Dos for Body Language: smile, stand straight, maintain eye contact, firm handshake, nod when you agree.
Don'ts: intense staring, scratching head, biting nails, slouching, yawning while listening, clenching jaws, looking away while someone speaks.

🖼️ Visual Communication

Visual communication sends and understands messages only through images, signs or symbols. Its biggest advantage is that you don't need to know a specific language — the meaning is simple, easy and remains the same across places and cultures.

Common Examples of Visual Communication

🚦

Traffic LightsRed = Stop, Yellow = Wait, Green = Go

🚫

No-smoking SignCommunicates a no-smoking zone.

🔊

No HornTraffic symbol asking not to blow horn.

🚻

Toilet SignsLadies / gents identification on doors.

🚂

Railway CrossingWarns of an approaching crossing.

🔥

Flammable SignMarks flammable substances.

💧

Slippery FloorWarns of a wet or slippery surface.

⏸️

Pause IconPause a video or audio on a device.

Learning Outcome 2: Identify specific communication styles

2.1 What is a "Communication Style"?

A communication style is the way a person expresses themselves — combining verbal choices (words, tone) with non-verbal cues (posture, expression). The style you pick controls how clearly your message lands and how the other person feels after the conversation. Using the right style makes communication more effective — others understand you better and respond in a better way.

2.2 The Four Main Communication Styles

⚡ Aggressive

Winning at any cost — not respecting others, shouting, using strong language, dismissing or insulting others.

🤐 Passive / Submissive

Avoiding conflict, giving others control, losing self-respect — keeping quiet, accepting wrong remarks, saying sorry even when not at fault.

🎭 Passive-Aggressive

Trying to get your way indirectly — not doing a task and lying about it, talking ill behind someone's back, silent resentment.

💬 Assertive

Respecting others and yourself — expressing views clearly, listening to others, saying "no" without hurting anyone.

Side-by-Side Comparison

Style	Means	Examples	Result
Aggressive	Winning at any cost, not respecting others.	Not caring about others' views; shouting; insulting; not listening.	Ill-feeling, anger, breakdown of communication.
Passive / Submissive	Avoiding conflict, losing self-respect.	Keeping quiet; accepting wrong remarks; saying sorry for no mistake.	Hurt feelings, loss of confidence, misunderstandings.
Passive-Aggressive	Getting your way without taking responsibility.	Indirect anger, not doing a task and lying, speaking ill in absence.	Does not get results; bad feelings all round.
Assertive	Respecting others and maintaining self-respect.	Expressing yourself while listening; understanding others' views; disagreeing without hurting.	Effective communication — both sides understand each other.

Assertive communication is the healthiest and most effective style. It builds self-confidence and self-respect, prevents words or actions you might regret later, makes everyone feel positive, and ensures everyone's ideas are heard.

2.3 Assertive Communication — 7 Actions to Practise

1. Be confidentSit, stand and walk with confidence. Shoulders straight, chin up. Maintain eye contact. Control nervous habits.

2. Speak slowly & clearlyUse a clear, calm voice. Be loud enough to be heard but don't shout. Keep speech short and correct.

3. Dress correctlyPeople judge by appearance. Dress neatly, smartly and suitably for the place and occasion.

4. Be honestExpress thoughts clearly and truthfully. Ask yourself what you actually want before agreeing.

5. Don't be aggressiveAssertiveness ≠ aggression. Stay calm during unfair situations; insist on rights with logic and politeness.

6. Speak upShare your opinions without worrying about reactions. Don't stay silent when you have something to say.

7. Learn to say "NO"Respect yourself. Don't let others take advantage. Refusing is okay when the request is wrong or inconvenient.

📵 Saying "NO" — Refusal Skills

Refusing a request without upsetting others is one of the key parts of assertive communication. Let's understand why it is difficult, when it is needed, and how to do it politely.

❓ Why it is difficult to say "no"

You may not want to make the other person upset or angry.
You may not want to start an argument or seem unhelpful.
You may not want to be left out of a group or team.

✅ When it is important to say "no"

When you cannot do what is being asked.
When you do not want to do what is being asked.
When it is against the rules or your own values.

🎯 The AEIOU Model — Remember the five vowels

Step	Meaning	What to say
A	Ask questions to check how important the task really is.	"Why do we need to leave early?" / "Why can't you do it yourself?"
E	Engage with a polite opening statement.	"I would like to help you, but…" / "I'd be glad to, but…"
I	Include a reason — explain your feelings or your situation.	"I can't come because I have my own homework to finish."
O	Offer another option — a different time, place or person.	"Can we go after school instead?" / "I can help you with yours after mine."
U	Thank the person for Understanding.	"Thank you for understanding." / "Thanks for agreeing to my suggestion."

Other polite "no" sentences: "I'm sorry, I cannot come as I have other plans." · "I have made other plans so I won't be able to join you." · "Thanks for asking, but I have to attend an important meeting." · "I would love to come, but I can't miss my meeting with the manager."

🔗 Connecting Words (Conjunctions) — used in "no" sentences

Small words such as and, but, or, so, because join two sentences together. They appear very often when we refuse something politely.

Conjunction	Use	Example
AND	Connects two words or sentences of equal importance.	"No, my brother and I won't be able to come."
BUT	Joins two sentences that suggest different ideas.	"I would love to come to your party, but I can't because of other plans."
OR	Shows a choice between two words or sentences.	"No, you can go with Dia or Ali."
SO / AS / BECAUSE	Joins two sentences where one is a reason for the other.	"I have a meeting, so I can't come." / "I can't come because I am busy."

Learning Outcome 3: Demonstrate basic writing skills

3.1 Sentence and Phrase

A sentence is a group of words that communicates a complete thought — e.g., "Raju goes to school." It always begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark.

A phrase is a group of words that does not make complete sense on its own — e.g., "Raju goes". A phrase needs more words to become a full sentence.

3.2 Using Capitals — the MINTS Rule

It is easy to remember when to use capital letters — just think of the word MINTS.

Letter	Stands for	Rule	Example
M	Months	Capitalise the first letter in names of months.	I will go to college in June.
I	the word "I"	Capitalise the letter "I" when it is used as a word.	Every day, I play tennis with him.
N	Names	Capitalise first letter in names of people, places and days.	This Tuesday, Vidya will be in Rajasthan.
T	Titles	Capitalise titles used before people's names.	Dr Shah and Mr Patel work together.
S	Starting	Capitalise the first letter of every sentence.	The cat ran out of the house.

3.3 Punctuation

Punctuation marks help separate the parts of a sentence and explain its meaning.

Name	Sign	Use	Example
Full stop	.	Ends a sentence; also marks short forms of long words (titles).	This is a sentence. / Dr Sanjay.
Comma	,	Shows a pause; separates three or more listed items.	I bought apples, oranges and grapes.
Question mark	?	Ends a question.	What is your name?
Exclamation	!	Shows a strong feeling — surprise, shock, anger.	What a pleasant surprise!
Apostrophe	'	Shows possession; also short form — "isn't" = "is not".	Divya's pen / Let's go.

3.4 Parts of Speech — Basic Five

The different types of words we use in sentences are called parts of speech. The five basic ones are noun, pronoun, adjective, verb and adverb.

Part	What it does	Example sentence	Example words
📛 Noun	Names a person, place, thing or idea — "naming word".	Reema wrote a letter.	dog, kindness, India, Sanjay
🔁 Pronoun	Used in place of a noun.	Reema wrote a letter. She is tired.	I, they, he, you
🎨 Adjective	Describes another word (noun).	Reema wrote a long letter.	small, blue, sharp, loud
🏃 Verb	Shows an action.	Reema wrote a letter.	run, eat, think, sit
⚡ Adverb	Adds meaning to a verb/adjective. Answers how? how often? when? where?	Reema quickly wrote a letter.	easily, always, inside, before

3.5 Supporting Parts of Speech

Besides the five main parts of speech, we use four supporting word types to glue sentences together.

Type	Use	Example
📖 Articles	The words a, an and the — usually used before nouns. • An before a vowel sound (a,e,i,o,u) • A before a consonant sound • The for a specific thing	The car stopped because a cat ran in front. / An apple. / An umbrella.
🔗 Conjunctions	Join two nouns, phrases or sentences. Common: and, or, but, so, because.	Sheela and I went to the market. / I have a meeting, so I can't come.
📍 Prepositions	Connect words to show relation — answer "where / when / how?". Common: on, at, in, under.	The cat is on the roof. / The shop is at the end. / Rahul stands under the tree.
❗ Interjections	Express strong emotion — happiness, surprise, anger, pain. End with an exclamation mark.	Wow! / Oh! / Oh no! / Thanks! / Help!

3.6 Parts of a Sentence — Subject, Verb, Object

Almost all English sentences have a subject and a verb; some also have an object.

👤

Subject

The person or thing that performs the action.

⚡

Verb

The word that describes the action.

🎯

Object

The person or thing that receives the action.

Examples

Sentence	Subject	Verb	Object
I ate an apple.	I	ate	an apple
He cooked dinner.	He	cooked	dinner
She kicked the football.	She	kicked	the football
Dia and Sanjay broke the bottle.	Dia and Sanjay	broke	the bottle

🎯 Direct & Indirect Objects

A direct object is directly acted on by the verb. An indirect object answers "to whom" or "for whom" the action is done.

Sentence	Verb	Direct object (what?)	Indirect object (to whom?)
Reema bought vegetables.	bought	vegetables	—
He offered me a chocolate.	offered	chocolate	me
The teacher gave us homework.	gave	homework	us

3.7 Active and Passive Voice

✅ Active Voice

The subject does the action. Example: Sanjay broke the glass.

🔄 Passive Voice

The subject receives the action. Example: The glass was broken by Sanjay.

More Examples

Active Voice	Passive Voice
She wrote a letter.	A letter was written by her.
He opened the door.	The door was opened by him.
Mohan played the flute.	The flute was played by Mohan.

3.8 Four Types of Sentences (by purpose)

📝 Declarative

Provides information or states a fact. Ends with "."
Example: It is very cold.

❓ Interrogative

Asks a question. Ends with "?"
Example: How is the weather?

😮 Exclamatory

Expresses a strong emotion. Ends with "!"
Example: Oh, it's so cold!

📢 Imperative

Gives an order, command, request or advice. Ends with "." or "!"
Example: Wear your sweater.

3.9 Paragraph Construction

A paragraph is a group of sentences connected by a single common idea. When you move to a new idea, start a new paragraph.

Structure of a Good Paragraph

1Topic Sentence
Introduces the main idea of the paragraph in one clear line.

2Supporting Sentences
Add details, examples, facts and explanations that back up the topic.

3Concluding Sentence
Sums up or wraps up the main idea of the paragraph.

Sample two-paragraph passage:
Paragraph 1 (facts): I go to Government Higher Secondary School, Balachadi. It is not a very big school, but it has many good teachers. There are about 100 students. My school is on the main road, very close to the city Railway Station.

Paragraph 2 (opinion): I love going to school and learning new things. My school has a small playground where I play cricket with my friends after class. It has a library also. I love my school.

While writing a paragraph: stick to one idea, use proper punctuation and capitalisation, link sentences with conjunctions (and, but, so, because), and end with a sentence that closes the idea.

APPENDIX A — BEYOND SYLLABUS (NCERT Handbook Extras)

Not in 2026-27 CBSE Class XI curriculum. The topics in this appendix (Sessions 4, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 of the NCERT Employability Skills — Class XI textbook) are not part of the three Learning Outcomes of Unit 1 for Session 2026-27 and will not be evaluated in theory or practical exams. They are included here only for completeness of the handbook and may help in real-life spoken-English skills.

A.1 Pronunciation Basics (Handbook Session 4)

Pronunciation is the way a word or language is spoken. Correct pronunciation helps others understand you clearly. Phonetics is the study of the sounds we make when we speak.

Letters vs Sounds

The English alphabet has 26 letters (A–Z), but we use more than 26 sounds when we speak English. That is why a word's spelling does not always match its pronunciation.

Example — the letter "a" is pronounced differently in different words:

Words	Pronunciation of "a"
cat, apple, back	short "a"
car, fast, park	long "a"
call, ball, saw	"aw" sound

Three Types of Sounds in English

🅰️

Vowels

5 vowel letters (a, e, i, o, u) — but 12 vowel sounds. One vowel letter = one vowel sound in a word.
e.g., "bit"

🔀

Diphthongs

Combination of two vowel sounds starting as one and moving to another.
e.g., "house" (ou sound)

🔤

Consonants

Any sound that is neither vowel nor diphthong. Formed with tongue, teeth, lips.
e.g., "pot" (p and t)

Example Words

Vowel sound	Examples	Diphthong	Examples	Consonant	Examples
long "ee"	sleep, keep, feel	"ea"	near, dear, hear	"p"	pen, report, stop
short "i"	slip, dip, fill	"ae"	late, cake, game	"t"	train, story, put
short "u"	book, put, foot	"oa"	boat, loan, most	"k"	book, cold, music
long "oo"	boot, group, two	"ou"	mouth, cow, cloud	"l"	look, place, school

A.2 Greetings and Introduction (Handbook Session 9)

Greetings change depending on who you are talking to and the time of day.

💼 Formal Greetings

Used with people you don't know, seniors, elders, teachers, customers — schools, offices, meetings.

Good morning, Sir!	Good morning, everyone!
Hello Sir. How are you?	Very well. Thank you. How are you?

👋 Informal Greetings

Used with friends, family or people you know very well.

Hey!	Hi! / Hello!
Hey! How are you doing?	Hi! I am doing great!

Greetings According to Time of Day

Time	Greeting
Early morning to 11:59 am	Good morning
12 pm to about 5 pm	Good afternoon
5 pm to midnight	Good evening ("Good night" is only at the end of a conversation)

Introducing Yourself and Others

Tell your name, then general info — hometown, job/subjects, interests. Look at the other person and smile.

To introduce someone else, tell their name, what they do, how you know them, or an interesting detail.

A.3 Talking About Self (Handbook Session 10)

Field	Example sentences
Name	I am Harish Sethi. · My name is Anu.
What they do	I am a student. · I play cricket. · I practise karate.
Age	I am 15 years old. · I will be 17 soon.
Hometown	I live in Mumbai. · I am from Goa.
Likes	I like swimming. · I like music.
Dislikes	I dislike summers. · I do not like loud noise.
Strengths	I am a good public speaker. · I can write stories very well.
Weaknesses	I get angry easily. · I cannot manage my time properly.

Filling a Form

A form has blank spaces for personal info. Read it before filling. Write neatly and use correct spellings.

Field	Meaning
Name	First, middle (if any) and surname.
Date of Birth	Date when you were born — day / month / year.
Address	Postal address — house number, street, area, city.
PIN Code	Numbers used by the post office to identify a region.
Signature	Your name / initials written by hand in a unique style.

A.4 Asking Questions (Handbook Session 11)

🔒 Close-ended Questions

Answered with yes / no. Answer options are closed / limited.
Example: "Are you hungry?" → Yes / No.
Formed by adding helping verbs (be, do, have, can, may, should) before the subject — or exchanging subject and verb positions.

🔓 Open-ended Questions

Need more detail as an answer. Answer options are open.
Example: "What would you like to eat?" → "An apple / mango / anything".
Formed using question words: What · Why · Who · How · When · Where.

Examples

Sentence	Close-ended question
I cook dinner.	Do I cook dinner?
She can cook dinner.	Can she cook dinner?
You can help me.	Can you help me?
They were cleaning their room.	Were they cleaning their room?

Open-ended question	Answer
What did you do?	I went to the park.
Why did you go there?	I went to meet my friend.
How did you go?	I cycled.

A.5 Talking About Family (Handbook Session 12)

Names for Relatives (English)

Mother + Father = Parents.
Parents of parents = Grandparents (Grandfather + Grandmother).
Sisters of father / mother = Aunts.
Brothers of father / mother = Uncles.
Children of aunts / uncles = Cousins.
Family of your husband / wife = in-laws (brother-in-law, sister-in-law, father-in-law, mother-in-law).

Possessive Adjectives — Show Relation or Ownership

Word	Meaning	Example
my	Belongs to / related to me	My mother is a teacher.
your	Belongs to / related to you	Where is your sister?
his	Belongs to / related to him	His cousin plays cricket.
her	Belongs to / related to her	She loves her father.
its	Belongs to / related to it	The baby is looking for its mother.
our	Belongs to / related to us	Our grandparents live in Simla.
their	Belongs to / related to them	Parents take care of their children.

Also use 's (apostrophe + s) on a noun to show ownership — e.g., father's sister, Ravi's house, Mr Sharma's uncle.

A.6 Describing Habits and Routines (Handbook Session 13)

A habit is a practice you follow regularly (and hard to stop) — e.g., waking up at a particular time. A routine is a regular, ordered way of doing activities at a fixed time.

Adverbs of Frequency

Words that show how often something happens — useful when describing habits and routines.

Type	Examples	Sentence
Regular activities	always, daily, weekly, yearly	I go to the temple weekly.
Irregular activities	sometimes, often, rarely, seldom, never	I sometimes go to the temple.

Priya's daily routine: "Every day, I get up at 7 am. I take a bath at 7:30 am. I have breakfast at 8. I go to school at 8:30. I come back at 2 pm. I iron and fold my clothes. I have dinner with my family at 7 pm and help wash utensils. I watch TV at 8 and go to sleep at 9."
Priya's habits (adverbs of frequency): "I always oil and comb my hair." · "I sometimes forget to finish my homework." · "I never miss school."

Frequency order (most → least): Always → Generally / Usually → Often → Sometimes → Rarely / Seldom → Never.

A.7 Asking for Directions (Handbook Session 14)

How to Ask Politely

Start with "Excuse me" or a greeting.
Ask clearly for the place — landmark, area, street or office.

Polite phrase
Excuse me, can you please tell me the way to the National Bank?
Excuse me, which way is the railway station?
Do you know the way to the Gandhi National Museum?

Giving Directions — Landmarks and Prepositions

Use well-known landmarks (bus stand, lake, bridge, big office, school) plus prepositions of position — on, near, opposite, in front of, across, behind.

Thanking the Person Who Helped

Phrase	When to use
Thank you	Polite way to thank anyone.
Thanks	More casual — only with friends / family.
I appreciate that	Another polite way to thank.
I really appreciate that	When someone goes out of their way to help.

When someone thanks you, reply with "You're welcome" or "Welcome".

Quick Revision — Key Points to Remember

Communication = sharing information to reach common understanding (Latin commūnicāre = "to share").
Elements: Sender → Message → Channel → Receiver → Feedback.
8 barriers: Language, Visual perception, Past experience, Prejudice, Feelings, Environment, Personal, Culture.
7 Cs: Clear · Concise · Concrete · Correct · Coherent · Complete · Courteous.
3 Methods: Verbal (words – oral / written), Non-verbal (body, tone), Visual (signs, symbols).
Non-verbal types: Expression, Posture, Gestures, Touch, Space, Eye contact, Paralanguage.
3 Ps of public speaking: Prepare → Practise → Perform.
4 communication styles: Aggressive · Passive/Submissive · Passive-Aggressive · Assertive (best).
7 assertive actions: Be confident · Speak clearly · Dress correctly · Be honest · Not aggressive · Speak up · Say No.
Why it's hard to say no: fear of upsetting others, starting an argument, being left out.
When to say no: can't do it · don't want to do it · against rules / your values.
AEIOU model for saying No: Ask → Engage → Include reason → Offer option → thank for Understanding.
Connecting words: AND (equal) · BUT (contrast) · OR (choice) · SO/BECAUSE (reason).
Sentence vs Phrase: sentence = complete thought; phrase = incomplete group of words.
MINTS capitalisation: Months · "I" · Names · Titles · Starting letter.
5 punctuation marks: "." "," "?" "!" "'".
5 basic parts of speech: Noun · Pronoun · Adjective · Verb · Adverb.
4 supporting parts: Articles (a/an/the) · Conjunctions · Prepositions · Interjections.
Sentence parts: Subject + Verb + Object (direct / indirect).
Voice: Active (subject acts) vs Passive (subject receives).
4 sentence types: Declarative · Interrogative · Exclamatory · Imperative.
Paragraph: Topic sentence → Supporting sentences → Concluding sentence.

🧠Practice Quiz — test yourself on this chapter→